Advanced Search
Volume 52 Issue 10
Oct.  2026
Turn off MathJax
Article Contents
Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics  > 2026  >  52(10): 3471-3481.
Feng S Y，Fu Z Q，Liu G N，et al. Developing status and prospect of range-extended aircraft[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics，2026，52（10）：3471-3481 （in Chinese）
Citation: Feng S Y，Fu Z Q，Liu G N，et al. Developing status and prospect of range-extended aircraft[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics，2026，52（10）：3471-3481 （in Chinese）
shu

Developing status and prospect of range-extended aircraft

doi: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0363
  • 1.

    College of Aerospace Engineering，Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics，Nanjing 210016，China

  • 2.

    School of Chemical Engineering and Technology，Xi’an Jiaotong University，Xi’an 710049，China

  • 3.

    AVIC General Huanan Aircraft Industry Co.，Ltd.，Zhuhai 519000，China

Funds:

2024 Graduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (xcxjh20240112)

More Information
  • Corresponding author: E-mail：shiyuf@nuaa.edu.cn
  • Received Date: 14 Jun 2025
  • Accepted Date: 17 Jul 2025
    • Available Online: 28 Sep 2025
  • Publish Date: 23 Sep 2025
    Abstract

  • All-electric aircraft face limitations in achieving long range due to the energy density constraints of current lithium batteries. Range-extended aircraft, employing an "electric-dominant, fuel-supplement" powertrain architecture, offer a balance between environmental benefits and extended range, positioning them as a crucial transitional solution for aviation decarbonization. This review focuses on the range-extended technology pathway. It provides an overview of the technological roadmaps adopted by representative range-extended aircraft models both domestically and internationally; it compares and analyzes five typical hybrid powertrain architectures, elucidating the definition and operational principles of the range-extended concept. It explores the advances and challenges of key enabling technologies that are driving its development, including high-power-density permanent magnet motors, intelligent energy management systems, efficient thermal management systems, and high-voltage partial discharge monitoring and protection technologies. This review clarifies the current landscape and core barriers of range-extended technology. It provides essential insights to inform the technological evolution towards long-range adaptability for all-electric aircraft and serves as a valuable reference for formulating strategies aimed at the low-carbon transition of the aviation industry.

     

    • FullText(HTML)
  • loading
    • References(85)
  • [1]
    Li Q, Yang Y, Yu X Q, et al. A 700 W·h·kg−1 rechargeable pouch type lithium battery[J]. Chinese Physics Letters, 2023, 40(4): 048201.
    [2]
    Lilium. The lilium jet[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://lilium.com/.
    [3]
    Bye Aerospace. eFlyer aircraft-Bye Aerospace[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://byeaerospace.com/.
    [4]
    Roboam X. A review of powertrain electrification for greener aircraft[J]. Energies, 2023, 16(19): 6831.
    [5]
    Silva F A. Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, third edition[J]. IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, 2018, 12(4): 46-48.
    [6]
    Peters A. This 19-seater plane is the first ever to run on a hydrogen-electric engine[EB/OL]. (2023-01-19)[2025-05-09]. https://www.fastcompany.com/90810924/zeroavia-hydrogen-electric-powered-plane-completes-first-flight/.
    [7]
    Merical K, Beechner T, Yelvington P. Hybrid-electric, heavy-fuel propulsion system for small unmanned aircraft[J]. SAE International Journal of Aerospace, 2014, 7(1): 126-134.
    [8]
    Thauvin J. Exploring the design space for a hybrid-electric regional aircraft with multidisciplinary design optimisation methods[D]. Toulouse: Institute National Polytechnique de Toulouse, 2018.
    [9]
    Welstead J, Felder J L. Conceptual design of a single-aisle turboelectric commercial transport with fuselage boundary layer ingestion[C]//Proceedings of the 54th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Reston: AIAA, 2016: 1027.
    [10]
    Wall T J, Meyer R. A survey of hybrid electric propulsion for aircraft[C]//Proceedings of the 53rd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference. Reston: AIAA, 2017: 4700.
    [11]
    国家质量监督检验检疫总局, 中国国家标准化管理委员会. 电动汽车术语: GB/T 19596—2017[S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2017.

    General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China. Terminology of electric vehicles: GB/T 19596—2017[S]. Beijing: Standards Press of China, 2017(in Chinese).
    [12]
    Airbus. E-Fan X[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/low-carbon-aviation/hybrid-and-electric-flight/e-fan-x.
    [13]
    Friedrich C, Robertson P A. Hybrid-electric propulsion for aircraft[J]. Journal of Aircraft, 2015, 52(1): 176-189.
    [14]
    Kim D H. Progress in distributed electric propulsion vehicles and technologies[C]//Proceedings of the 2020 AIAA/IEEE Electric Aircraft Technologies Symposium. Piscataway: IEEE, 2020: 1-11.
    [15]
    Thapa N, Ram S, Kumar S, et al. All electric aircraft: a reality on its way[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 43: 175-182.
    [16]
    Wall T J, Meyer R T. Hybrid electric aircraft switched model optimal control[J]. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 2020, 36(4): 488-497.
    [17]
    Yang B N, Lou F Y, Key N L. Conceptual design of a 10-passenger thin-haul electric aircraft[C]//Proceedings of the 2020 AIAA/IEEE Electric Aircraft Technologies Symposium. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2020: 1-18.
    [18]
    李龙, 王鹏. 混合电推进系统关键技术研究进展[J]. 燃气涡轮试验与研究, 2021, 34(3): 49-53.

    Li L, Wang P. Development of key technologies for hybrid electric propulsion system[J]. Gas Turbine Experiment and Research, 2021, 34(3): 49-53(in Chinese).
    [19]
    Zunum Aero. Bringing you electric air travel out to a thousand miles[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://zunum.aero/.
    [20]
    Electra. Electra reveals design for EL9 ultra short hybrid-electric aircraft[EB/OL]. (2024-11-13)[2025-05-09]. https://www.electra.aero/news/electra-reveals-design-for-el9-ultra-short-hybrid-electric-aircraft.
    [21]
    Bell. Bell nexus 6HX[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://evtol.news/bell-air-taxi.
    [22]
    辽宁锐翔通用飞机制造有限公司. RX1E-A[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. http://www.rgac.net.cn/c/RX1E-A.html.

    Liaoning Ruixiang General Aircraft Manufacturing Co. , Ltd. RX1E-A[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. http://www.rgac.net.cn/c/RX1E-A.html(in Chinese).
    [23]
    Diamond Aircraft. Diamond aircraft proudly presents the world’s first serial hybrid electric aircraft “DA36 E-Star”[EB/OL]. (2011-06-23)[2025-05-09]. https://www.diamondaircraft.com/en/about-diamond/newsroom/news/article/diamond-aircraft-proudly-presents-the-worlds-first-serial-hybrid-electric-aircraft-da36-e-star/.
    [24]
    Diamond Aircraft. eDA40—all electric aircraft[EB/OL]. [2025-04-28]. https://www.diamondaircraft.com/en/flight-school-solution/aircraft/eda40/.
    [25]
    Pipistrel. Panthera hybrid-electric aircraft[EB/OL]. [2025-04-28]. https://www.pipistrel-aircraft.com/products/panthera/.
    [26]
    University of Stuttgart. Hybrid propulsion system for e-Genius aircraft[EB/OL]. (2015-08-10)[2025-05-09]. https://www.dspace.com/ko/kor/home/applicationfields/stories/uni-stuttgart-e-genius.cfm.
    [27]
    Airbus. Airbus, Rolls-Royce, and Siemens team up for electric future partnership launches E-Fan X hybrid-electric flight demonstrator[EB/OL]. (2017-11-28)[2025-05-09]. https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2017-11-airbus-rolls-royce-and-siemens-team-up-for-electric-future.
    [28]
    University of Stuttgart. e-Genius is flying with hybrid propulsion for the first time[EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://www.uni-stuttgart.de/en/university/news/all/e-Genius-is-flying-with-hybrid-propulsion-for-the-first-time/.
    [29]
    Qu R H, Lipo T A. Dual-rotor, radial-flux, toroidally-wound, permanent-magnet machines[C]//Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 2002 IEEE Industry Applications Conference. 37th IAS Annual Meeting. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2002: 1281-1288.
    [30]
    Zhang X L, Haran K S. High-specific-power electric machines for electrified transportation applications-technology options[C]//Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2017: 1-8.
    [31]
    Wang Y L, Nuzzo S, Zhang H, et al. Challenges and opportunities for wound field synchronous generators in future more electric aircraft[J]. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, 2020, 6(4): 1466-1477.
    [32]
    Andrade L, Tenning C. Design of Boeing 777 electric system[J]. IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 1992, 7(7): 4-11.
    [33]
    Ferreira C A, Richter E. Detailed design of a 250 kW switched reluctance starter/generator for an aircraft engine[J]. SAE Transactions, 1993, 102: 289-300.
    [34]
    Masson P J, Breschi M, Tixador P, et al. Design of HTS axial flux motor for aircraft propulsion[J]. IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, 2007, 17(2): 1533-1536.
    [35]
    Schramm A, Gerling D. Researches on the suitability of switched reluctance machines and permanent magnet machines for specific aerospace applications demanding fault tolerance[C]//Proceedings of the International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion, 2006. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2006: 56-60.
    [36]
    Garcia A, Cusido I, Rosero J A, et al. Reliable electro-mechanical actuators in aircraft[J]. IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 2008, 23(8): 19-25.
    [37]
    Villani M, Tursini M, Fabri G, et al. Multi-phase fault tolerant drives for aircraft applications[C]//Proceedings of the Electrical Systems for Aircraft, Railway and Ship Propulsion. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2010: 1-6.
    [38]
    Villani M, Tursini M, Fabri G, et al. High reliability permanent magnet brushless motor drive for aircraft application[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2012, 59(5): 2073-2081.
    [39]
    Liu Y G, Pillay P. Improved torque performance of switched reluctance machines by reducing the mutual saturation effect[J]. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 2004, 19(2): 251-257.
    [40]
    Van Der Geest M, Polinder H, Ferreira J A, et al. Machine selection and initial design of an aerospace starter/generator[C]//Proceedings of the 2013 International Electric Machines & Drives Conference. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2013: 196-203.
    [41]
    Sayed E, Abdalmagid M, Pietrini G, et al. Review of electric machines in more-/hybrid-/turbo-electric aircraft[J]. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, 2021, 7(4): 2976-3005.
    [42]
    Mecrow B C, Jack A G, Atkinson D J, et al. Design and testing of a four-phase fault-tolerant permanent-magnet machine for an engine fuel pump[J]. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 2004, 19(4): 671-678.
    [43]
    Zhang L F, Wang K, Sun H Y, et al. Multiphase PM machines with halbach array considering third harmonic flux density[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2019, 66(12): 9184-9193.
    [44]
    Elloumi N, Bortolozzi M, Masmoudi A, et al. Numerical and analytical approaches to the modeling of a spoke type IPM machine with enhanced flux weakening capability[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 2019, 55(5): 4702-4714.
    [45]
    Koch S F, Peter M, Fleischer J. Lightweight design and manufacturing of composites for high-performance electric motors[J]. Procedia CIRP, 2017, 66: 283-288.
    [46]
    Zhou Y, Tian L, Gao S H, et al. Design and testing of CFRP sleeve for a high-speed permanent magnet synchronous motor with surface-mounted rotor[J]. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 2021, 35(1): 221-230.
    [47]
    Nøland J K, Leandro M, Suul J A, et al. High-power machines and starter-generator topologies for more electric aircraft: a technology outlook[J]. IEEE Access, 2020, 8: 130104-130123.
    [48]
    El-Refaie A, Osama M. High specific power electrical machines: a system perspective[J]. CES Transactions on Electrical Machines and Systems, 2019, 3(1): 88-93.
    [49]
    Tenconi A, Vaschetto S, Vigliani A. Electrical machines for high-speed applications: design considerations and tradeoffs[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2014, 61(6): 3022-3029.
    [50]
    Kiss G M, Vajda I. Magnet leakage flux of axial flux PM synchronous machines for EV[C]//Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2015: 1-5.
    [51]
    Emrax. Emrax 348 axial flux electric motor specifications (400 kW | 1000 Nm) [EB/OL]. [2025-05-09]. https://emrax.com/products/emrax-348/.
    [52]
    Yoon A, Yi X, Martin J, et al. A high-speed, high-frequency, air-core PM machine for aircraft application[C]//Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Power and Energy Conference at Illinois. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2016: 1-4.
    [53]
    Huang S, Luo J, Leonardi F, et al. A general approach to sizing and power density equations for comparison of electrical machines[C]//Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 1996 IEEE Industry Applications Conference Thirty-First IAS Annual Meeting. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2002: 836-842.
    [54]
    Huang S R, Luo J, Leonardi F, et al. A comparison of power density for axial flux machines based on general purpose sizing equations[J]. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1999, 14(2): 185-192.
    [55]
    Singh B, Singh B N, Chandra A, et al. A review of three-phase improved power quality AC-DC converters[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2004, 51(3): 641-660.
    [56]
    Benzaquen J, He J B, Mirafzal B. Toward more electric powertrains in aircraft: technical challenges and advancements[J]. CES Transactions on Electrical Machines and Systems, 2021, 5(3): 177-193.
    [57]
    Liu R, Xu L, Kang Y L, et al. Decoupled TAB converter with energy storage system for HVDC power system of more electric aircraft[J]. The Journal of Engineering, 2018, 2018(13): 593-602.
    [58]
    Zhang P, Yan F W, Du C Q. A comprehensive analysis of energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles based on bibliometrics[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 48: 88-104.
    [59]
    Murgovski N, Johannesson L, Sjöberg J. Convex modeling of energy buffers in power control applications[J]. IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 2012, 45(30): 92-99.
    [60]
    Hung J Y, Gonzalez L F. On parallel hybrid-electric propulsion system for unmanned aerial vehicles[J]. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 2012, 51: 1-17.
    [61]
    Lee H D, Sul S K. Fuzzy-logic-based torque control strategy for parallel-type hybrid electric vehicle[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 1998, 45(4): 625-632.
    [62]
    Karunarathne L, Economou J T, Knowles K. Adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system-based intelligent power management strategies for fuel cell/battery driven unmanned electric aerial vehicle[J]. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 2010, 224(1): 77-88.
    [63]
    Elbert P, Nüesch T, Ritter A, et al. Engine on/off control for the energy management of a serial hybrid electric bus via convex optimization[J]. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2014, 63(8): 3549-3559.
    [64]
    Njoya Motapon S, Dessaint L A, Al-Haddad K. A comparative study of energy management schemes for a fuel-cell hybrid emergency power system of more-electric aircraft[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2014, 61(3):1320-1334.
    [65]
    Donateo T, De Pascalis C L, Ficarella A. An application of the ECMS strategy to a wankel hybrid electric UAV[J]. MATEC Web of Conferences, 2019, 304: 03010.
    [66]
    Zhai Y W, Wang X Y, Zhang H W. A fuzzy-adaptive ECMS based energy management strategy for series hybrid electric aircraft[C]//Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2024: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition. New York: ASME, 2024: V005T06A039.
    [67]
    Palaia G, ABU Salem K, Carrera E. Efficient methodology for power management optimization of hybrid-electric aircraft[J]. Aerospace, 2025, 12(3): 230.
    [68]
    Freeman J, Osterkamp P, Green M, et al. Challenges and opportunities for electric aircraft thermal management[J]. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, 2014, 86(6): 519-524.
    [69]
    Weragoda D M, Tian G H, Burkitbayev A, et al. A comprehensive review on heat pipe based battery thermal management systems[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2023, 224: 120070.
    [70]
    Zhao Y, Diaz L B, Patel Y, et al. How to cool lithium ion batteries: optimising cell design using a thermally coupled model[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2019, 166(13): A2849-A2859.
    [71]
    Coutinho M, Bento D, Souza A, et al. A review on the recent developments in thermal management systems for hybrid-electric aircraft[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2023, 227: 120427.
    [72]
    Hong S H, Zhang X Q, Chen K, et al. Design of flow configuration for parallel air-cooled battery thermal management system with secondary vent[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018, 116: 1204-1212.
    [73]
    Liu Y Q, Cao J W, Song Y C, et al. Analysis of the immersion cooling of electric motors for hybrid aircraft[J]. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2023, 178: 695-705.
    [74]
    Potamiti M, Gkoutzamanis V G, Kalfas A I. Thermal management system design for a series hybrid-electric propulsion architecture[J]. The Aeronautical Journal, 2024, 128(1325): 1532-1555.
    [75]
    Asli M, König P, Sharma D, et al. Thermal management challenges in hybrid-electric propulsion aircraft[J]. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 2024, 144: 100967.
    [76]
    张本栋, 江军, 李治, 等. 面向未来多电飞机的低气压下局部放电[J]. 航空学报, 2022, 43(7): 268-278.

    Zhang B D, Jiang J, Li Z, et al. Partial discharge characteristics of future more electric aircraft under low air pressure[J]. Acta Aeronautica et Astronautica Sinica, 2022, 43(7): 268-278(in Chinese).
    [77]
    Shahsavarian T, Pan Y, Zhang Z S, et al. A review of knowledge-based defect identification via PRPD patterns in high voltage apparatus[J]. IEEE Access, 2021, 9: 77705-77728.
    [78]
    Hu G C, Wu G N, Yu R, et al. The influence of pressure on the discharge along oil-paper interface under AC stress[J]. Energies, 2019, 12(10): 1920.
    [79]
    Katsuta G, Toya A, Endoh T, et al. Development of a new detection method of partial discharge for EHV long-distance active cable line[J]. Electrical Engineering in Japan, 1992, 112(7): 77-91.
    [80]
    Bartnikas R. Detection of partial discharges (Corona) in electrical apparatus[J]. IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, 1990, 25(1): 111-124.
    [81]
    Abdel-Gawad N M K, El Dein A Z, Mansour D A, et al. PVC nanocomposites for cable insulation with enhanced dielectric properties, partial discharge resistance and mechanical performance[J]. High Voltage, 2020, 5(4): 463-471.
    [82]
    Yan W, Phung B T, Han Z J, et al. Partial discharge characteristics of epoxy resin-based nanocomposites fabricated with atomospheric plasma treated SiO2 nanoparticles[C]//Proceedings of 2011 International Symposium on Electrical Insulating Materials. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2014: 353-357.
    [83]
    Wester F J. Condition assessment of power cables using partial discharge diagnosis at damped AC voltage[D]. Delft: Delft University of Technology, 2004.
    [84]
    Gulski E, Wester F J, Smit J J, et al. PD detection in power cables using oscillating wave test system[C]//Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 2000 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation. Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2002: 444-447.
    [85]
    Gulski E, Smit J J, Seitz P N, et al. On-site PD diagnostics of power cables using oscillating wave test system[C]//Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering. London: IET, 1999, 5: 5.112-5.115.
    • Relative Articles
    • Supplements(0)
    • Cited By
  • 加载中

Catalog

    通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
    • 1. 

      沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

    1. 本站搜索
    2. 百度学术搜索
    3. 万方数据库搜索
    4. CNKI搜索

    Figures(6)  / Tables(3)

    Get Citation
    PDF
    XML

    Article Metrics

    Article views(272) PDF downloads(13) Cited by()
    Proportional views
    Related

    Copyright © Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics

    Address: Editorial Department of Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing Post Code: 100191 Email: jbuaa@buaa.edu.cn

    Supported by: Beijing Renhe Information Technology Co., Ltd.    

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return